What Is a Letter of Intent in M&A? A Founder's Guide to the LOI

In a middle market sale process, the letter of intent, the LOI, is the document that establishes the framework of a transaction. It is submitted by a buyer, negotiated with the seller, and signed before formal diligence begins. It covers the key terms of the deal: purchase price, structure, earnout, exclusivity, and other material conditions.

Most founders treat the LOI as the moment a deal is essentially done. Understanding transaction readiness beforehand changes that calculus entirely. It is not. It is the moment a deal is agreed in principle, subject to the scrutiny of a 60 to 90 day diligence process that can and often does change the effective economics of the transaction.

What a letter of intent typically contains

While LOI formats vary by buyer and advisor, the core terms in a middle market LOI are consistent. Purchase price is the headline, typically expressed as a total enterprise value or as a multiple of adjusted EBITDA. Purchase price structure specifies how that consideration is delivered: cash at closing, deferred payments, rollover equity, and earnout components.

Which LOI terms are binding and which are not

A critical distinction most founders underappreciate: the LOI is largely non-binding. The real commitment begins in the quality of earnings and diligence process that follows. Purchase price, structure, earnout, and most commercial terms are explicitly non-binding pending completion of diligence and execution of a definitive purchase agreement. The binding provisions are typically limited to exclusivity, confidentiality, and the no-shop restriction.

The practical implication: once exclusivity is granted, the seller's negotiating leverage shifts materially toward the buyer. The seller has incurred banking and legal costs, the management team is committed to the process, and buyer alternatives are not immediately available. Diligence findings create negotiating pressure from a structurally weaker position than before signing.

Where value is most commonly lost between LOI and close

The gap between LOI headline value and realized closing proceeds is one of the most underappreciated risks in a middle market transaction. It occurs through several well-understood mechanisms.

Most of these mechanisms are addressable before they become problems, through preparation before the process, careful LOI negotiation, and diligence management during the exclusivity period. The founders who experience the largest gaps between LOI value and realized proceeds are those who treated the LOI as a finish line and stopped negotiating.

How to evaluate an LOI before signing

Before signing, evaluate the full economics of the proposed transaction, not just the headline price. Model the range of realistic closing proceeds under different scenarios: the headline price as offered, a 10–15% EBITDA haircut from QoE findings, a working capital target differing from ordinary-course operations, and an earnout with a range of post-close outcomes.

The terms most worth negotiating before signing, not after, are the working capital methodology and scope, earnout metric definitions and control provisions, exclusivity duration and conditions, and the scope of representations the seller is asked to make. These terms are most negotiable before the LOI is signed, because the buyer has no exclusivity yet and the competitive process is still active.

The 9 most negotiated LOI terms and what each costs to concede

Every term in an LOI has a dollar value. Founders who negotiate LOI terms without modeling their economic consequences consistently accept more risk than they realize. The following comparison covers the nine terms most actively negotiated in middle-market LOIs, and what conceding each one costs.

The terms with the largest economic impact — working capital methodology, earnout metric definition, and rep and warranty scope — are also the terms most buyers present as standard. They are not standard. They are the buyer's preferred starting position. Each is negotiable, and each negotiation is worth more than it appears.

Working capital: the LOI term most founders underestimate

Working capital adjustment is the mechanism through which a buyer ensures the business is delivered with enough operating liquidity to run normally after close. In principle, it is fair. In practice, the definition of normal and the methodology for measuring it are where significant value is transferred from seller to buyer when the LOI is vaguely drafted.

The most common working capital disputes arise from three sources. First, the definition of what is included in working capital: does the buyer's standard methodology include items the seller's ordinary operations do not normally carry? Second, the measurement period: a trailing 3-month or 6-month average captures seasonal peaks that may not reflect the full-year ordinary-course position. Third, the treatment of deferred revenue: buyers frequently include deferred revenue as a liability in the WC calculation, which can significantly reduce the seller's net WC position even when the business's cash position is healthy.

For a detailed treatment of how to establish an ordinary-course WC baseline and negotiate a fair methodology, see the guide to working capital adjustments in M&A. The key principle: the working capital methodology should be agreed at LOI stage, not deferred to the purchase agreement. By the time the purchase agreement is being drafted, the seller is in exclusivity and the negotiating dynamic has shifted.

What "subject to diligence" really means in an LOI

The phrase "subject to satisfactory completion of due diligence" appears in virtually every LOI. Most founders read it as a formality — the buyer has already evaluated the business, made an offer, and the diligence is just verification. That interpretation is costly.

Buyers exercise retrade leverage in two primary ways. First, through QoE findings: if the quality of earnings report surfaces EBITDA adjustments the seller did not anticipate, the buyer presents a revised purchase price using the lower adjusted EBITDA as the basis. Second, through diligence findings: if legal, operational, or commercial diligence surfaces material risks the seller did not disclose, the buyer uses those findings to negotiate price reductions, expanded escrow, or additional representations.

The difference between a vague LOI and a tight one is the specificity of its price protection language. A vague LOI defines the price as a multiple of adjusted EBITDA subject to QoE without specifying what constitutes an acceptable QoE variance or how disputes are resolved. A tight LOI defines the EBITDA base used for pricing, the methodology for any QoE adjustment, the threshold below which a price reduction is required, and the process for resolving QoE disputes. Founders should push for this specificity before exclusivity is granted — it is nearly impossible to add after signing.

The LOI to close timeline: what happens in each phase

Understanding the post-LOI timeline reduces management anxiety and improves process execution. Each phase has different requirements and different risks — knowing what is coming allows management to allocate bandwidth and attention appropriately.

The most common timeline failures are management distraction in Phase 2 (leading to delayed responses that erode buyer confidence), QoE findings surfacing in Phase 3 without preparation (leading to retrade negotiations), and purchase agreement disputes in Phase 4 over terms not specified in the LOI. All three are preventable with LOI-stage negotiation and pre-process preparation.